The significance of the lantern festival in Chinese culture

Lanterns have always been an inherent part of the Chinese culture. A Chinese and his lantern are inseparable. Even on the brightest moonlight, Chinese consider it their duty to provide themselves with artificial light; and it is an interesting spectacle at a large fire at night to see streets filled with crowds holding lanterns aloft.

Held on the fifteen day of the first month of the Lunar Year, the Lantern Festival, also known as Yuan Xiao Festival (in Chinese, Yuan means month, Xiao means night) is always celebrated under a full moon, marking the end of Chinese New Year festivities. The Lantern Festival usually takes place in October when the weather gets cooler. At that night, thousands of colorful lanterns walk in the Chinese streets, people eat glutinous rice ball (yuanxiao), moon cakes, or cakes in the shape of horse, fish, rabbit, flowers or goddesses with fillings of sugar, orange peel, melon seeds, ham, or almonds and get together in a blissful atmosphere.

There are many legends associated to the origin of the Lantern Festival. The most common is related with the religious worship of Taiyi, the God of Heaven. Believing that Taiyi could control human lives with his sixteen dragons and bring favorable weather and good health to human instead of storms, famine, drought and plague, Emperor Qin Shi Huang, the fist emperor to unite China, organized splendid ceremonies each year. Since 104BC, Lantern Festival has become one of the most important celebrations in China.

Bearing a significance of cultural element more than a pure celebration of gala performance, the Lantern Festival owes its formal instigation to the introduction of Buddhism in Chinese culture. Emperor Ming (28-75 AD) of the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD) issued an order to burn the light on the fifteen day of the first month of the Lunar Year to spread Buddhism. According to tradition, celebrations were lasting three days and included banquets with a view to the moon. Besides, the influence of Indian Buddhism during the Han Dynasty featured the concept of Moon Rabbit. Also known as Jade Rabbit, the rabbit in the moon signifies immortality by standing under a magical cassia tree.

At the times of the Tang Dynasty (618AD – 907AD), the Lantern Festival was celebrated with Chinese people lighting lanterns and placing them in front of their house doors to create a luminous atmosphere. The significance of the lanterns at that period can be found at their relation to the nature as, in majority, their portrayals and shapes were illustrating agricultural produce from all over the land.

During the Sung Dynasty (906AD – 1279AD), Chinese people were floating lanterns on streams and rivers to guide the spirits of those who had drowned. 

At the times of the Ming dynasty (1368AD-1644AD), people were decorating houses and gardens with lanterns and they were playing tom-toms and gongs to celebrate the Lantern Festival.

Lanterns provide great insight into Chinese history. Many of them portrayed surnames in bold Chinese calligraphy in one side and picturesque drawings on the other. Originally, such lanterns were made to differentiate families of villagers and insinuate their social status. Over time, lanterns served as number plates and doorbells as well as identifiers of a particular household or simply as lighters.

One of the most important connotations of lanterns was their view as symbols of enlightenment and blessing. Many Chinese believed that by lighting a lantern they were sending away the darkness of ignorance. Besides, the Chinese word for lantern is ‘deng’ which sounds similar to ‘deng’ referring to male authority in the household. Therefore, many Chinese hung lanterns outside their household to invite fertility and prosperity into the family.

Because of their major significance, lanterns were crafted based on the different occasions they were used for. For example, in the ancient times, dragons were the exclusive privilege of the imperial family and symbolized the divine, depriving civilians from using them. Today, lanterns are made of bamboo strips, fruits skins or leaves depending on the area and the materials available.

Also, the lanterns were inherently associated to the primary functions of the Festival, namely gathering, praying and thanksgiving. The evening before the Festival, friends would gather to eat together and drink tea or wine. The night of the Lantern festival offerings would be placed on an altar decorated with the picture of the Moon Rabbit. Praying would complete the ceremony which would be conducted by women as the moon is associated with yin, the feminine force.

Besides entertainment and beautiful lanterns, one major event taking place in the Lantern Festival is the lion dance. Being a fine traditional dance derived from the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280), the lion dance echoes the skills of the dancers focusing on the animal resemblance. Performing amusing acting makes spectators have fun and enjoy Lantern Festival even more. Besides, in ancient Chinese tradition the lion symbolizes strength and boldness and protect people. Therefore, a performance of lion dance signifies a happy and fortunate life.

Another folk event is walking on stilts that originates to the Spring and Autumn period (770BC – 476BC). Performers walk on stilts and do extremely difficult moves by impersonating clowns, fishermen and monks and performing humorous acts.

The plight of minorities in China

As of today, China has a population of nearly 1.4 billion people, accounting for the 19.7 percent of the global population. Out of these, 55 ethnic minority groups of different size total to 8.04 percent of the Chinese population. The ethnic minority groups with a size of over 1 million people are the Zhuang, the Korean, the Bai, the Tibetan, the Miao, the Mongolian, the Uygur, the Bouyei, the Dong, the Kazak, the Hui, the Manchu, the Hani, the Dai, the Yi, the Yao, the Li and the Tujia, 18 in total. Out of them, the largest is the Zhuang with a population of more than 15 million people.

In the course of the 20th century, government policies towards ethnic minorities can be characterized as an effort to accommodate and assimilate these ethnic groups into contemporary China. At the times of the Han Dynasty (206 BC220 AD), ethnonym was introduced to distinguish the dominant ethnic group in China, the Han. In 1911, the movement for the Republican Revolution appealed directly to ethnic nationalism urging the Han Chinese majority to force out the ruling Qing Dynasty (16441912). In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) employed similar assimilation policies that aimed to the systematic classification of the ethnic groups based on the Stalinist definition of ethnicity that led to the 55 ethnic minorities that exist today.

Ethnic nationalism is the main source of the present plight of minorities in China. Seeing the nation as a politicized ethnic identity defined by common culture and origin, ethnic nationalism shares historical experiences and common language. Although banning any form of racial discrimination is of high constitutional importance in China, the historical origins of nationalism justify the political conflicts between different ethnic groups. Although the governmental policies towards the protection of the fundamental rights of Chinese ethnic minorities demonstrate great pluralism minorities do not consider that they are Han Chinese and demand separation from the Chinese state.

The kind of nationalism that emerges in China has its roots in the political and social acts that create a nation based on historical and cultural ideas, values and practices for political purposes. Despite all the efforts of governmental intervention, the Chinese minorities groups have never been fully integrated into Han culture because they have resisted cultural and political interferences to a varying extent.

At the same time, China sees itself as a united multicultural state, yet united under the umbrella of the Han people, who make up for the 92 percent of the Chinese population. However, eating habits and traditional values are different in Shanghai or Canton. The seven or eight main dialects are as different as English and French. Chinese ethnic minorities gain political significance when they reside in key strategic border regions, particularly in regions that are rich in natural resources.

For instance, in Xinjiang where China shares borders with Russia and Pakistan and maintains its nuclear test site, nearly 9 million Uygur, 1.3 million Kazak and 160,000 Kyrgyz reside. Besides, nearly 6 million Tibetans reside in the Tibet Autonomous Region where China shares borders with India. Yet, they are unified by a different religion, and language than the Han and they oppose to Chinese oppression.

Since 1978, China has undergone major social and economic reforms that have changed the setting of a centrally planned economy enabling its passage to a free market economy. By suppressing collectivism both in the rural and the industrial sector, decentralizing the external trade and employing autocracy to control social cost and avoid social chaos, China has opened its borders to foreign direct investment and attracted major investment inflows.

Today, Chinese ethnic minorities suffer the consequences of globalization mainly by not being entitled to resist the wheel of modernization. By being deprived of economic resources and unable to establish modern facilities to ensure survival and economic stability, minority groups strive to maintain their self-sufficiency and their cultural heritage. Besides, their need for labor, capital, technological infrastructure, transportation and access to information seems to be growing at a fast pace.

The glamour of China’s economic miracle, the thrill of its booming cities and the use of the Chinese language on television, in film, and in radio are taking away the distinct identity of ethnic minorities. Besides, useless propaganda slogans basically flatten out all traditions turning them into mainstream culture. According to sociologists, this dominance is the result of a perception of natural hierarchy of the Han Chinese in the political and social life of China.

Is China’s prosperity threatened by ethnic minority groups? There is no doubt that ethnic tensions create a volatile situation in China. In March 2008, several months before the Summer Olympic Games in Beijing, ethnic Tibetan monks staged the biggest anti-Chinese demonstration to mark the anniversary of an unsuccessful Tibetan uprising in 1959. Protests have been reported in Western China, mainly in the provinces of Gansu, Sichuan and Qinghai, while the Dalai Lama has characterized the event as China’s ‘cultural genocide’ in Tibet, warning that he would step down as leader of Tibetans should the violence persisted. Although the Summer Olympic Games were, admittedly, successful, China was accused for disrespecting the fundamental right of any citizen to express their political and religious views; but nothing more than that. Ethnic minorities remain in the shadow of the dominant Han control.

Conclusively, the plight of minorities in China is an issue that, despite any changes in China’s ideological policy since 1978, has remained relatively firm. In many ways, ethnic minorities that have their own culture, language, religion, and customs and have been unable to identify with the Han culture, are widely regarded as foreigners and are mistrusted. This, inevitably, leads to the expansion of ethnic nationalism and the growing flow of refugees around the globe.

The history of the Chengbeixi culture

The contribution of the Neolithic cultures of the Yangtze River to the origins and growth of agricultural populations in Southeastern Asia was vital. According to archaeological and comparative linguistic evidence, the early steps to organized agricultural villages, rice and millet cultivation, and animal husbandry began in 11000 BP. These developments led to the establishment of Austro-Asiatic and Austronesian-speaking populations into South and East Asia. Besides, recent archaeological discoveries stress the assumption that the pottery was originally developed in South China. Therefore, the region is of high historical significance.

Considerable regional variability in Neolithic cultures in the region of the Yangtze River is demonstrated between 6500 BP and 1900 BP, while evidence of rice cultivation suggests the growth of paddy rice agriculture over the mid-lower Yangtze Valley.

Chengbeixi culture developed in the period between 7000 BP and 5000 BP in the Middle Yangtze Valley, in Hubei Province. Findings of large quantities of rice husks and straw as pottery tempers and the discoveries of house ruins suggest that rice was most likely domesticated in Chengbeixi assemblage, although historians have not reached a definite conclusion. During that Developmental Stage, the improved rice variety that evolved from the previous site of Pengtoushan culture (8900 BP – 8000 BP) at the Incipient Stage was the result of advanced irrigation and drainage technology that facilitated tidal movement. Besides, livestock domestication equaled agricultural growth including dogs, sheep, pigs and water buffaloes.

The significance of Chengbeixi assemblage to rice cultivation is further supported by the palaeoclimate changes that occurred between 8400 BP and 8000 BP. Although, in 7000 BP, the palaeoclimate in the Yangtze Valley was mostly warm providing a good, tropical environment for the animals in the region, the palaeoclimate changes that occurred led to a significant reduction of many ripe fruits and nuts. Although the faunal resources in the Yangtze Valley remained relatively unaffected, the dry and cold palaeoclimate reduced the territories of the animals and consequently their quantity.

On the other hand, historians suggest that because of the unique physical and geographical conditions in the Chengbeixi site, prehistoric foragers were forced to seek their survival and development in a more favorable environment. Besides, because of the reduction of fruits and nuts and the dominance of herbs, prehistoric foragers were directed to the consumption and cultivation of wild grasses such as rice.

Over time, the distinguishing morphological traits such as seed size and leaf color of the rice varieties that were cultivated in Chengbeixi, suggests that foragers were cultivating many and different variations of rice.

Whether mid-lower Yangtze Valley paddy agriculture was domesticated or not requires further study and research. Yet, in spite of lacking definite historical conclusion for the domestication of rice cultivation in Chengbeixi site, there is undisputed indirect evidence that mutations led to a reduction in the degree of grain, which is a prerequisite for domestication.

The history of Buddhism in China

It is believed that Buddhism entered China from India via Silk Road by monks, merchants, emissaries, and other travelers. In the early 1st century AD, China was a country rich in cultural pluralism and historical antiquity. Emperor Ming (28-75 AD), the second emperor of the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), fascinated by Buddhism, sent emissaries to India, in the land of Yuezhi. The Chinese envoys returned to China in 67 AD with Buddhist sculptures, the image of Buddha, sutras with 600,000 Sanskrit words and two Indian monks. At that year, ‘The Sutra of forty-two sections spoken by the Buddha’ was produced to offer guidance on Buddhism philosophy and the conduct of monks. By the late 1st century AD, a Buddhist community had been established in Loyang, the Chinese capital.

During that first period that Buddhism was just introduced in China, many Buddhist scriptures were translated and interpreted. Besides, at that period of the Han Dynasty, the White Horse Temple was built that signified the first time that Buddhist doctrines were ever delivered in China.

However, Buddhism did not begin to influence China before the 2nd century AD due to a number of significant factors that hindered its earlier acceptance. First of all, Confucianism was the predominant religion at that time and had instilled its values and traditions in the Chinese philosophy. Confucianism had introduced the idea of an orderly social order, in which every human plays a part according to sanctified custom. In contrast, Buddhism encouraged the desertion of all worldly ties in pursuit of a remote and indistinct spiritual ideal. In this context, Buddhism seemed unfavorable and foreign.

On the other hand, the mystical tradition of Taoism upheld a return to simplicity and agreement with nature, which seemed to have similarities with the teachings and practices of Buddhism. Besides, the arrival, in large numbers, of Buddhist monks from Central Asia and India influenced Chinese people. In the beginning, their awkward appearance with shaved heads and robes made them look like beggars and their defiance towards the traditional Confucian importance on family was disheartening. Although the first Buddhist monasteries were built by Chinese-speaking Indians, over time Chinese monks took over their administration and translated all Buddhist texts into Chinese. This allowed Buddhism to advance into Chinese culture.

The decline of the Han dynasty in 220 AD weakened the Confucian ideology and saw a period of great turbulence in China. In the turmoil of the Six Dynasties Period (AD 220 – 589 AD), Buddhism developed and spread swiftly. During that period, smaller dynasties took power in southern and northern regions of China. In the absence of one self-governing dynasty to promote Confucianism, Buddhism gained enormous momentum, gradually becoming the single largest religion in China.

During its second period, when Chinese Buddhism entered its prosperous time, the majority of Buddhist scriptures were translated while many more Buddhist writings came into light. Besides, at that period of the Jin Dynasty (265AD-420AD) and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (386AD-589AD), the Buddhism doctrines were made popular across the country and the number of Buddhists increased.

Chinese Buddhism maintained many elements of the Indian Buddhism, but it also featured new elements and rituals that were directed to the Chinese culture and philosophy. The monastic system, the sacred writings, the worship rites and the contemplative exercises were retained from the Indian philosophy. Besides, Buddhism beliefs about reincarnation were one of the main reasons that Buddhism was so profoundly accepted and followed in China.

Soon, Buddhism influenced deeply Chinese cultural and philosophical ethics. At the time of the Sui Dynasty (581AD-618AD) and the Tang Dynasty (618AD – 907AD), Buddhism reached its peak. Many Buddhist schools and monasteries were built; doctrines were introduced and refined; the worship of Amitabha and the Pure Land School became extremely popular. Besides, the emperors of the Sui Dynasty believed in Buddhism and in spite of the Taoist beliefs of the Tang emperors, Buddhism was protected and developed in China during that period. This explains its rapid spread and its profound influence on Chinese tradition, culture and thought.

Between 629 AD and 645 AD, the Chinese monk Hsuan Tsang left the Capital of the Tang Dynasty and traveled to India returning with 700 Buddhist texts to deepen the understanding of Buddhism in China. The trip of Hsuan Tsang was the inspiration for one of the greatest Chinese novels, ‘Journey to the West’ that retraces Tsang’s paths in search for enlightenment.

However, in the late years of the Tang Dynasty, Taoism was favored over Buddhism due to social unrest and instability leading to the secularization of monks and nuns and the destruction of many temples and libraries. Taoism and Confucianism remained the prevailing religions until the 11th century when Buddhism experienced a revival.

From the 11th to the 13th century, during the Song Dynasty, the Chan School infused deeply the Chinese culture and influenced the Neo-Confucian philosophers who detested Buddhism. However, the overall interest in Buddhism seemed to have declined as Chinese religion was divided in many movements. Particularly Taoism and Confucianism focused on the importance of living into this world and of being committed to family, education, good citizenship and fulfilling duties expected by society.

Finally, Buddhism experienced a new revival in the early 20th century prospering before the chaos of the World War II, but it was soon suppressed by the Maoist rule. After the proclamation of the establishment of the People’s Republic in 1949 by Mao and the employment of the policy of freedom in religion belief, Buddhism entered a new growing phase. However, in the period of Culture Revolution in 1966, Buddhist temples were destroyed, scriptures were burned, statues were shattered and monks were thrown out on the streets. Today, Buddhism is related to the social and ethnic backgrounds of people and it appears in three main forms, Han, Tibetan and Southern Buddhism.

The history and significance of the Lu

Tibetan Buddhism encompasses the confluence of Buddhism and certain religions of the Himalayas, which arrived in Tibet from India in the late 8th century. At that time, Indian Buddhism incorporated Hindu tantric and yogic practices with the classical doctrines of Buddha acknowledging two paths to enlightenment: one path involved the sutra practice based on wisdom, morality and concentration; the other path, which became the cornerstone of Tibetan spirituality involved the practice of sutra teachings with techniques of Hindu yoga and tantra.

Bon religion is the earliest tradition of Tibet. Although the increasing patronage of Buddhism led to its gradual discouragement, persecution and banishment, thanks to the persistent devotion of Drenpa Namkha (9th century) and Shenchen Kunga (10th century), Tibet’s indigenous religion was not abandoned to oblivion re-establishing its position alongside Buddhism in Tibet.

Natively shamanistic, Bon is mostly concerned with personal state of mind that the spirits in general and aims at bringing the selves in indirect communication with other spirits. To find harmony, the person needs to cultivate the ‘heartmind’ that allows harmony and insight into the spiritual world, including own spirits.

One of the most significant elements in Bon religion is the serpent spirit known as the Lu. The Lu, also known as Naga or Klu, is a form of mythical serpentine creature that appears as human or snake or in a combination of the two with a human torso and a coiled snake tail. The Lu inhabits the underworld, mainly in oceans, lakes and streams, but also in rocks and boulders.

The Bon religion perspective on the importance of the Lu is seen on the supernatural powers attributed to this spirit. Bon religion shamans believe that unseen forces are as numerous as the ones people can see anywhere in the nature, in every forest, tree, or house, big or small creatures, important or humble that from time to time may appear to humans in the form of visions or dreams.

All these creatures are believed to be Gods, extremely powerful, who can control the lives of humans and all the forces of the universe. Therefore, human happiness and liberation is bound to the well-being of these creatures in all spheres of existence. Cutting trees, building a house or digging a part of land upsets the Lu, which then will try to equate the illegitimate use of land and natural resources with stealing of the personal possessions of the humans. In the battle between the Lu and the human being, the weaker human will endure great hardships that may lead to death; the stronger Lu will react with rage and strike back at the human offenders, inflicting catastrophes, diseases and death. The important element is that the Lu will strike back at any human, even at innocent people, who may fall ill with leprosy and epidemics.

Humans are mostly vulnerable to the Lu when their luck is low because their weakness is immediately evident to other creatures. The shamans of the Bon religion, in order to prevent any harm associated to bad luck, hang strings of various prayer flags that bear the image of a horse as it is believed that the ‘wind horse’ (Lung-ta) is the symbol of good luck.

Another way to bring good luck is to practice a shamanistic ritual that is based on the Tashi Sojong sutra. This ritual involves the offering of conical-shaped cakes, known as tormas, to satisfy the Lu. The tormas have first been blessed by mantras to ensure their purification from ordinariness and meditational stabilization. The idea is to offer gifts to the Lu in exchange of using its land. The motivation of the shaman is driven by compassion and the purpose of the ritual is beneficial, especially as the shaman knows that the human accumulates negative karma by upsetting the Lu. Therefore, the ritual is performed with the purpose of transferring the consciousness of the human being Lu to another sphere where it will cause less or no harm to other beings. However, the ritual is not always successful as there are cases that the Lu may inhabit in a particular place that it doesn’t want to abandon for any reason.

The Lu is also pleased with vase-offering rituals in exchange of relieving humans from drought and other misfortunes. Because the Lu is believed to like fragrant smells, vase-offerings are filled with a variety of blessed cereals and precious metals and are placed in lakes where the Lu is known to inhabit.

According to Bon religion and Tibetan Buddhism in general, as humans cannot survive without building or some form of land exploitation, they only to keep the Lu satisfied is to perform peaceful, powerful, increasing or wrathful rituals, depending on tradition. However, the Lu is not strictly known as a malicious spirit. It can also be benevolent provided it is respected.

The founding of the Qin empire

The Qin Dynasty (221BC-206BC), also known as Ch’in, is the first true empire in the history of China and the one that, actually, gave its name to this vast land. Founded by Shih Huang Ti (259BC-210 BC), the Qin dynasty unified China after conquering the six western states that existed during the Warring States Period since the 8th century BC.

The Qin state was formed under the ruling of King Xiao of Zhou, the 8th king of the Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC–256 BC) and, according to historical evidence, was one of the 150 small political entities that existed within the Dynasty’s territories. From 361BC until his death in 338BC, Xiao and a prominent Qin scholar, Lord Shang Yang, launched a series of military and political reforms to reorganize the Qin state. With the abolishment of feudalism, land was taken from hereditary landowners and was distributed to the peasants. Besides, excessive taxation for the peasants was abolished, while villages and settlements were put under county administration. Males with strong body structure were recruited to the army, while foreign workers were recruited to cultivate crops thus increasing state revenue.

In 337BC the Qin state proclaimed the unification of China under its rule. Over the next century, the Qin state gained increasing power and influence and dominated in the broader area. Having acquired political and military power, but also having excelled in bribery, espionage and assassination techniques, the Qin state had managed to solidify its position. Although it was the less culturally advanced of the Warring States, it had become military the strongest. By utilizing innovative technologies in warfare, it managed to dominate over the Han (230BC), the Wei (225BC), the Chu (223BC), the Yan (222BC), the Zhao (222BC) and the Qi (221BC) Warring States, control the provinces through efficient bureaucracy, separate civil and military power and complete the unification of China. In 221BC, Shih Huang Ti proclaimed the Qin Dynasty and announced himself the First Emperor, as his name literally meant, initiating the tradition of having emperors as rulers.

Established in the area that today is known as the province of Shaanxi, the Qin Dynasty is responsible for several notable reforms despite its short time in power.

One of the most remarkable reforms of Shih Huang Ti was advocating Legalism. Under the ruling of the Zhou Dynasty, leaders of the military forces were instructed to respect their enemies’ weaknesses. However, in the Warring States Period that followed, the philosophy of Legalism encouraged cruel warfare. The Qin Dynasty completely disregarded all noble military traditions and engaged into avaricious and insincere warfare. Governing under a completely totalitarian system, the Qin government placed absolute control in the hands of the rulers, who were highly efficient, but equally ruthless. Anyone who dared to criticize Qin politics was executed, purged or buried alive. The intense anti-intellectual campaign entailed a standardized education that involved material approved by the government and taught by government staff.

To reinforce the army, Shih Huang Ti introduced civil governors, military commanders and imperial inspectors (yushi), who were responsible for the orderly function of the state. Divided in 36 commanderies (jun) that were subdivided into counties, the Qin Dynasty involved a punishment – reward system and exercised absolute control on the people, who lived in groups of five to ten families for the better control of possible misbehavior. In spite of the harsh measures, with these reforms the Qin Dynasty acquired a large, efficient army that combined strong leadership with talented young soldiers, eager to employ latest developments in weaponry and transportation. Besides, these latter improvements allowed greater mobility over diverse terrain types of the Chinese mainland making Qin Dynasty militarily superior. Moreover, its geographical position offered to Qin Dynasty a strategic advantage, but also natural fertility that made available food and natural resources to sustain its large army.

Other reforms involved the standardization of the language and writing of Chinaduring the Warring States Period in order to ensure proper and consistent communication between the commanderies. Standardization of the currency and of measurements followed. Besides, at that period, many public projects were undertaken such as roads, irrigation canals and a Great Wall to protect against invasions.

In spite of all the reforms and developments, Shih Huang Ti was quite unpopular. Taxation was heavy, noblemen disliked him for having been deprived of all their power and scholars were against him for having been banned from education and having seen their writings being burned.

The death of Shih Huang Ti in 210BC signified the beginning of the fall of Qin Dynasty, that finally collapsed in 206BC.

The fall of the Yuan dynasty

By the mid-thirteenth century, the Mongol presence was dominant in northern China, Korea, Central Asia and Eastern Europe. In 1204, Tiemuzhen, a leader of the Mongolian minorities that resided in northern China unified all the tribes. In 1206, he was honored as ‘the ruler of the world’ taking the name Genghis Khan (1167-1227) and establishing the Mongolian Empire. However, it was his grandson, Kublai Khan (1215-94) who rose to power in 1260 and began his drive against the extermination of the Song Dynasty (960–1279), finally establishing the Yuan Dynasty in 1271.

The Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) was the first non-Han dynasty to rule China. The cultural diversity between the Mongols and the Chinese was apparent in their different language, customs and dressing code. Kublai Khan recognized the need to govern China through traditional institutions with the help of Chinese bureaucrats and officials. However, this proved inevitable because of all the background differences between the Mongols and the Han. The cultural gap led to Mongols and other foreigners occupying all government positions in the Mongol administration. Besides, the Chinese were discriminated against socially and politically. By launching a series of economic, political and social reforms, Kublai Khan centralized the Chinese government and became the absolute monarch.

One of the most remarkable reforms of Kublai Khan was the reforms in the taxation system and the improvements in agriculture and infrastructure. Using superior agricultural techniques of those employed by the previous dynasties, Kublai Khan managed to increase the food production. Besides, under the ruling of the Yuan Dynasty, important public projects were made. The renovation and extension of the Grand Canal, the construction of highways and public granaries throughout the empire to anticipate possible famine, and the building of hospitals and orphanages provided the state with economic growth and prosperity. Kublai Khan promoted also science and religion, encouraged astronomy, mathematics and medicine to reach a high level, supported the Silk Road trade network and engaged in diplomatic activities with foreign countries to reinforce China’s position on the global map. All these commercially oriented developments encouraged inland and maritime commerce between China and Europe.

In spite of all the developments, the excessive spending exhausted China economically. Campaigns that were launched against Japan were unsuccessful and many Chinese ships were destroyed. External trade was made very difficult for the Chinese, who were not allowed to learn any foreign language or travel outside China for commercial reasons. Only foreign merchants were allowed to have trade relationships with China and were granted privileges by the Yuan Dynasty. This was the time that Marco Polo visited China and provided the West with a thorough description of his Eastern experiences.

The first signs of decline for the Yuan Dynasty appeared during the ruling of Buyantu Khan, also known as Emperor Renzong (1286-1320). Although he was the first among the Yuan emperors to adopt the mainstream Chinese culture to the displeasure of the Mongol elite, he like all Kublai Khan’s successors lost all influence in China. The times in power of the later Yuan emperors, including Buyantu Khan, were short, full of intrigues and rivalries and associated with famine, struggle and bitterness among the populace.

The general setting that ultimately led to the fall of the Yuan Dynasty was the following:

Discrimination against the Han Chinese from the government and the exclusive use of Mongols in administrative positions led to the foreigners being treated better than the Chinese. This led to peasant uprisings in southern China, but despite the warning of the social unrest, the corruption of the Yuan court bureaucrats continued.

At the same time, the internal disagreements between the officials of the Yuan Dynasty became very serious. In the period between Külüg Khan’s reign in 1308 and Ukhaantu Khan’s reign in 1333, eight emperors undertook the power. During that period, corruption was severe as public administration officials were appointed on the basis of bribery.

The concentration of land in the hands of Mongolian aristocracy and a selected group of Han landlords led to new uprising from the poor populace. Besides, the Yuan Dynasty underwent a fiscal crisis that was the result of an extremely luxurious lifestyle. At the same time, although at its founding the Yuan Dynasty was one of the strongest military forces in the world, engaging in administrative tasks and governing a brand new land has made the Mongols lax in military training. Inevitably, the Mongolian army became corrupted and disintegrated.

The real authority of the Yuan Dynasty passed to the hands of Prime Minister Bo Yan, who introduced a series of unfavorable measures against the Han, escalating the ethnic favoritism. Besides, serious natural disasters put the poor populace in horrendous poverty leading the farmers to organize armed uprisings. Although some of them were successfully suppressed, the surging wave of impoverished population brought the Yuan Dynasty on the verge of collapse.

In 1351, Liu Futong and his ‘Hongjinjun Uprising’ (army with red head-scarves) was the beginning of fierce battles in Yingzhou that meant the beginning of the end for the Yuan Dynasty. At the same time, Zhu Yuanzhang and his ‘Hongjinjun Uprising’ won a series of battles with strict military discipline thus strengthening his armed forces.

In 1356, by increasing his military forces and recruiting more talented military officers, Zhu Yuanzhang achieved the defeat of the separatist military forces in northern China.

In 1367, Zhu Yuanzhang and his rebel army launched a deadly attack on the Yuan regime, while in 1368 he captured the Yuan capital, Dadu (today’s Beijing), and put an end to the ever powerful Yuan Dynasty.

The belief of spirits and its impact on the Chinese culture

Every culture encloses a number of folk beliefs to interpret events that occur in everyday life. Chinese culture is no different from other cultures. The extreme imagination of the ancient Chinese led foreigners to view their spiritual beliefs as pure superstitions. Rural residents worshipped their local deities because they strongly felt they had a major influence on their daily lives. They believed in the existence of special spirits in strangely-shaped stones, boulders, old trees, fields, streams and roads. All these beliefs have been transferred from generation to generation as lay villagers and less educated people continued to worship spirits.

The great majority of Chinese people believed in spirits and practiced rituals that were often included under the umbrella of the Chinese religion. Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism as well as other religions contributed many beliefs to popular religion. Particularly Buddhism included the concept of personal development for the purpose of living an ideal life and, ultimately, attaining immortality in the afterlife.

Even before the introduction of Buddhism in China, Chinese worshipped a large conglomeration of gods. Many of them were heroes who had distinguished themselves by exposing estimable services to China, or had contributed to save the country from external aggression or had helped to prevent distresses due to natural misfortunes. These individuals were defied after their death.

Having appeared in the early years of primitive religious consciousness in ancient China, belief in spirits evolved around belief in God and the Mandate of Heaven. Primarily introduced by the Yin and Shang dynasties, the spirit of Tien signified the worship of Heaven. In ancient times, Tien was worshiped at the Temple of Heaven in Beijing (Peking at that time) during the New Year. Believing that Heaven takes precedence over human efforts and reflecting the definite heaven – human unity, Tien was the supreme element in Confucianism. The philosophical field of the heaven – human unity determined Confucianism as a cultural element of Chinese tradition rather than the origin of Chinese traditional values. As such, the passionate worship of Tien as God, although it is not a God in the sense that it is used in Christianity, can be explained as an inherent part of Chinese culture.

Beliefs in spirits were instilled to modern people and to those who have become acquainted with the teachings of Buddhism. In times of misfortune and sickness, people would turn to God and the spirits for advice and help to keep away evil ghosts. Although spirits were widely regarded as good and benevolent, villagers worshiped them fearing that they might become nasty if they were not paid sufficient respect.

Manifestations of human desire for life after death can be found in Chinese religion in the form of religious theories of continuance beyond death that present the fate of the individual as a detached spiritual “self” or “soul.” Buddhism assumes personal salvation emphasizing on biological continuance through descendants.

One of the strongest beliefs in the Chinese culture is the Yau-Kwei. Yau-Kwei signifies the existence of two men who escaped death and returned to life as spirits. Chinese believe that when someone suffers from nightmares or bad dreams is the Yau-Kwei that causes them. According to the Chinese tradition, the easiest way to keep them away is to tick them off them as soon as the person awakes. However, if this method fails, two or more healthy people should be called in to spend the night with the patient because Yau-Kwei are said to be afraid of the strong and attack only the weak. A third way to keep Yau-Kwei away is to wet a sword with human blood and wave it over the bed or to hire a spirit shooter to eliminate the spirit. Besides, Chinese hang looking-glasses on the bedroom walls so that Yau-Kwei cannot enter unperceived.

During the Zhou dynasty (1050 – 256 BC), Chinese tradition was instilled by the yin-yang theory, which suggests that whole existence is the result of alternation and interchange between passive (yin) and active (yang) forces. This dichotomy of existence is transferred to the dichotomy of the soul making people strong believers of the salvation of the soul and ardent practitioners of rituals of the domestic, gravesite, and clan hall cults for ancestors.

Every Chinese believes in the spirit of Fang yin-kau, the spirit of holiday, also known as Shi-shih. This belief is mainly related to the extremely unfavorable climate conditions in Central and Southern China during August and September that causes many Chinese to fall sick. According to Chinese tradition, during these two months the gates of Hell are opened so that the spirits are allowed a holiday. To satisfy Fang yin-kau, Chinese set out outdoor feasts during these two months. Typically, they decorate their courts with paper clothing cut in different sizes. As soon as it gets darker, Chinese priests light lanterns in tall bamboo polls to guide the Fang yin-kau to the food and sing their hymns at the sound of the tom-toms. These celebrations last until the daylight to the full satisfaction of Fang yin-kau. After the ceremony, the clothing is burned and leftovers of food are given to beggars.

The spirit of Feng Shui is probably one of the most well-known spirits of the Chinese culture with a major influence on everyday life. Literally meaning ‘Principle of Life’, Feng Shui is a spirit or air and water that, according to Chinese tradition, it signifies luck. Besides, the importance of Feng Shui in Chinese culture is also reflected in the fact that any Chinese, at any social status, hires a Feng Shui specialist to find out the lucky spot for performing a burial so that the spirit of luck enters the body of the dead and follows his children and all his ancestors for a lifetime. However, if the selected spot fails to bring luck, Chinese people believe that the spot was appropriate at the time of the funeral, but it changed over the course of time. To destroy the bad Feng Shui, they cut down a tree near the tomb or they deface the tomb, which, however, leads to severe court punishment if offended.

Feng Shui is also related to decisions about building a house, constructing a canal, or laying out a road. Feng Shui specialists are always called in to determine the best location for the house’s doors and windows and furniture so that sickness and misfortune are repelled. If however, the first effort fails, a second Feng Shui specialist is called in to examine the premises and determine what needs to be done. In most of the cases, he may order one door to be closed and another to be opened or minor changes in the placement of the furniture. If bad luck still insists, a third specialist is called in. However, the faith of Chinese people in Feng Shui remains unshakable and resolute.

Conclusively, belief in spirits is an inherent part of Chinese tradition and culture. No Chinese would get married, build a house, start a journey or bury a relative without consulting or satisfying the spirits. While Chinese people believe there are good spirits that can bring them luck, they equally believe there are bad spirits that can harm them. Regardless if they understand why these spirits exist, Chinese are greatly affected by their folk beliefs since ancient times.

Overview of the Sabah culture

Located on the eastern side of Malaysian Borneo, Sabah, the ‘Land below the Wind’ or ‘Land Of The Sacred Mountain’ is named after its location, directly underneath the typhoon belt that protects it from climatic changes. The serenity of Mount Kinabalu, the tropical rainforests and the coastal coal reefs compile not only a magnificent tourism destination, but one of the most culturally prominent sites. Being blessed with one of the oldest ecosystems in the world, Sabah is the original homeland of more than different ethnic minorities that speak more than 80 different local dialects. Sabah maintains its tradition and culture and blends it with mainstream elements to create a fascinating environment. Being a multicultural state that hosts many different ethnic groups, Sabah is the second largest state in Malaysia after Sarawak.

The cultural diversity of Sabah assembles a captivating array of unique and fine culture, reflected on the differences in traditional costumes, dance, music and handicraft of the various ethnic communities. Each of these differences echoes the identity of each ethnic group.

Like most of the southeastern archipelago regions, Sabah has been culturally affected by the continental influences of the mainland Asia that have been extremely powerful and are still evident on some parts of the local lifestyle. However, the people of Sabah maintain their culture and despite the heterogeneity of the population, the end-result is beautifully preserved customs and practices. Sabah is living under a modernization spree and certain rituals are less frequently performed, but, in majority, customs are a significant part of the daily life of the locals as well as of special local festivals.

In the 16th century, Sabah was known as North Borneo under the ruling of the Sultanate of Brunei. Until 1761, when the British East India Company established a trading post in the region, North Borneo was under the reign of different local kingdoms.

In 1865, North Borneo passed to the hands of an American trading company as the American Consul of Brunei managed to solicit a 10-year lease it from the Sultan of Brunei. However, the agreement failed due to financial reasons and the rights of the trading company were sold to the Austrian Consul in Hong Kong, who later obtained a renewal of the 10-year lease. This ultimately led to the creation of the British North Borneo Provisional Association Ltd, in 1881.

After a short Japanese occupation during the Word War II, Sabah became a British Colony until 1963 that declared its independence when Sarawak, Singapore, Malaya and North Borneo formed what became known as Malaysia.

Today, Sabah consists of nearly 2.5 million residents who are a diverse blend of races. The main indigenous groups are the Kadazan-Dusun (17.8 percent of the population), the Bajau (13.4 percent of the population) and the Murut (3.3 percent of the population), while the largest immigrant ethnic group is the Chinese (13.2 percent of the population).

The Kazadan-Dusun is the largest indigenous group of Sabah that was named after the unification of the two Mongolian ethnic groups that migrated to Malaysia, the Kazadan and the Dusun. These two groups speak the same language and share the same culture with minor differences that are derived from their traditional geographical influences. The Kazadan populate mainly in flat valleys and river deltas, while the Dusun live traditionally in mountainous regions. However, in general terms, both ethnic groups are unified under one name and make up for the 33 percent of the population of Sabah. They are prolific rice producers, but they also engage in other sectors of trade. They are best known for their colorful costumes, their female priestesses (‘Bobohizan’) and their ‘Tadau Ka’amatan’ Harvest Festival.

The Bajau is a collective term used to describe indigenous groups that are culturally associated to the Sama populations. Historically, the term ‘Sama’ is used to describe the land-oriented inhabitants, while the term ‘Bajau’ is used to describe mostly a nomadic, sea-oriented lifestyle. The Bajau people are mostly established in Sabah’s coastlines because the sea is part of their culture. There, they engage into fishing, handmade boat construction, horse-riding, buffalo-watering and rice-farming. They are best known for their ‘Tamu Besar’ Festival and their peaceful mentality and way of life.

The Murut live in the northern inland regions of Sabah in communal longhouses near the rivers, which they use as transportation means. Best known for their headhunting skills with the use of spears, and poisoned darts, the Murut believe that collecting heads traditionally serves in their values and spiritual beliefs. They are known as cultivators of tapioca and padi, and they also engage in fishing, hunting and agriculture. In majority, the Murut have converted into fundamentalist Christianity, but they strongly maintain their culture as well. Another important element of the Murut indigenous group is their musical heritage that consists of several types of bamboo-gongs and accompanying melodic instruments.

Today, a variety of cultural events and performances take place on Sabah in the context of promotion of the various cultures and traditions of Sabah’s ethnic minorities, both locally and internationally. The local cultural boards organize traditional and modern dance art performances, creative and modern dance performances, cultural events, traditional music events and many more.

A history of the Bai minority

The Bai minority is a population of nearly 1.9 people who reside in concentrated communities in the Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan Province of southwest China. Situated on the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, the Bai area is blessed with river valleys, dense forests and huge tracts of land as the Lancang, the Nujiang and the Jinsha rivers cross their routes forming a magnificent landscape of beauty and fertility.

The area around the Lake Erhai is believed to have been inhabited in the early years of the Neolithic Age (6,000 BC to 2,000 BC) by the ancient population of the Ji. Archaeological findings and artifacts of that period indicate that the Ji were using stone tools, lived in caves and engaged in hunting, fishing, farming and livestock rearing.

At the times of the Qin Dynasty (221BC – 206 BC) and Han Dynasty (206BC – 220 AD) the Ji had close associations with the Han majority in the inland provinces. In 109BC, Emperor Wu Di (156 BC-87 BC) of the Han Dynasty established a large number of Han people in Yunnan bringing advanced production techniques, establishing irrigation systems, building irrigator channels and providing iron tools to the Ji thus contributing to the economic growth of the area. Besides, during the period of the Sui Dynasty (581-618) and the Tang Dynasty (618 – 907) farming in the area developed to a great extent. At those times, the Ji united around the Erhai Lake and established the Nanzhao regime, thus becoming the ancient ancestors of the today’s Bai population.

The Nanzhao regime maintained good associations with the central government for nearly 250 years. However, the suppressive policies of the rulers that oppressed other ethnic nationalities and used slaves for heavy labor led to warfare and slave rebellions. Besides, productivity was harmed and the Nanzhao regime was transformed into a feudal lord system that became known as the Kingdom of Dali.

During the period of the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the Kingdom of Dali lasted for nearly 300 years (937-1253). Because of the blend of populations and the cultural and economic exchanges with the Hans, the culture of Bai was greatly enriched. Besides, through a series of measures that abolished excessive taxation, social productivity was restored.

In 1253 the Kingdom of Dali was conquered by the Mongols, who designated Yunnan a province establishing Dali as a prefecture. During the ruling of the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), Dali was transformed into a landlord system where people of Bai nationality were granted positions in the central and local government as well as official posts.

At the times of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) numerous reforms took place that weakened the economic and political privileges of the local rulers, freeing the slaves and encouraging people into farming. All the Bai people who had previously emigrated because of the social unrest returned to the area and contributed to the swift development of the landlord economy of the Bai society.

Continuing the reforms of the Ming Dynasty, the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) dispatched officials from the central government and appointed local lords to rule over the Bai people.

In 1949, commercial capitalism was the dominant economic system in the Bai areas. A few bureaucrat landlords were controlling trade and commodities, importing cloth and yarns from the US, UK and France and exporting gold, silver and sideline produce. This continuous oppression of the Bai minority led to a major political and social unrest that led to the establishment of the Dali Administration. The new administration adopted measures to promote agricultural and industrial production, reduce taxation and eradicate discrimination against any nationality.